Land Tenure

Bernard Lewis writes, in Chapter 15 of The Middle East: a Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years, pp. 286-304, about "Changes". Specifically, this chapter is about the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the emergence of the Western European hegemony, and the changes wrought in the Middle East as a result of these two processes. One interesting aspect of all of this is the changes in land tenure that occurred between the 16th and 19th centuries within the Ottoman Empire. During this time in which Europe was acquiring new wealth and strength, the Sultan was losing his powers, and becoming, in effect, a servant to his subjects.

Sultan's Loss of Power

In the capital, the sultan was losing his powers to the ministers and courtiers. In the provinces, he was losing his powers to autonomous, hereditary rulers. The sultan had become, in effect, largely a nominal suzerainty. (A side-trip to the dictionary at Answers.com tells me that a suzerainty is "a situation in which a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which allows the tributary some limited domestic autonomy but controls its foreign affairs." Furthermore, I find that "The term suzerainty was originally used to describe the relationship between the Ottoman Empire and its surrounding regions. It differs from sovereignty in that the tributary has some (limited) self-rule." This devolution of power ( the "delegation of authority or duties to a subordinate or substitute") was accompanied by "extensive changes in the system of land tenure and taxes."

Traditional Ottoman Land Tenure

In the traditional Ottoman order of land ownership, the sipahi was considered "the kingpin of both the military and fiscal agrarian systems". He held a grant of land from the Sultan known as a timar . This sipahi was actually a cavalryman, and was granted land as a form of payment for his military service to the Sultan. The sipahi system was begun under the reign of Murad I, the Sultan from 1362?–1389, reached its height in the early and mid-16th century, and declined considerably thereafter. As the sipahis lost their importance, their place was taken in the field by regular military troops, and in the countryside by tax-farmers.

Changes in System of Sipahi

Over a period of time, and with increasing frequency, the lands of the timars that were vacated were re-incorporated into the imperial domain, and the tax revenue that came from them was re-directed to the exchequer. The state officials did not collect these taxes directly, however. Rather, they sold the rights to collect this money to tax-farmers. Tax-farming, as the Wikipedia tells us, is the privatization of tax collection; private citizens are given the right of, and responsibility for, the collection of taxes, instead of the government. (Incidentally, the same article informs us that "Beginning in September 2006, the IRS will begin to outsource the collection of taxpayers debts to private debt collection agencies." Does this portend the end, as it did for the Ottomans?)

Tax-farmers

Originally, the right to collect taxes was sold on an annual basis, at a fixed rate for the year. However, by abuse, as Lewis says (p. 300), the period of the grant of time was extended longer and longer. Finally, it developed into a system known as malikâne. Under this system, the time-limited grant became, in effect, a freehold. ("In order to be categorized as a freehold, an estate must possess the characteristics of (1) im- mobility—in the sense that the property must be either land, or some interest derived from or affixed to land—and (2) indeterminate duration.")

Freehold

The tax farms were converted into freeholds in various ways: by purchase or grant from the government, by prescription (?), or by "simple usurption in defiance of the authorities." (Lewis, ibid) Over time, the malikâne system evolved into one that became a life-time grant, and even became heritable and alienable. That is, the tax-farmer could pass on these rights to his son, or he could sell it to whomever he pleased. By the end of the 17th century, Lewis tells us, this system had been introduced to many of the provinces in the Ottoman Empire. During the 18th century, the Sultans tried to abolish this system, but these efforts failed.

Autonomous Local Rulers

The evolution of the malikâne system provided an economic base for the emergence of the a‘yän, and it is these individuals who became the real rulers of the countryside. The weakness of the central government, Lewis tells us, and the loss of effective control in the provinces, helped the a‘yän to acquire the political power, such that they even sometimes became autonomous local rulers. The Encyclopedia Britanica Online says "Under the Ottoman regime (c. 1300–1923) the term ['ayn)] at first denoted provincial or local notables, but in the 18th and early 19th century it was applied to a class of landlords who exercised political functions and were accorded official status." The a'yän came from various origins. They might have been simply rich landowners, or traders, or sipahis who found it more profitable and a less dangerous a form of land tenure that the military grant. In time, Lewis says, a whole series of functionaries of the court and the harem also became a'yän, (the plural of 'ayn), who either engaged in the tax collection business themselves, or through their agents.

Landed Gentry

Soon, the a'yän began to resemble a freeholding, landed gentry. They began choosing their own leaders and representatives, and these were recognized, rather than appointed, by the central government. As their economic power grew, so did their functions, which eventually included the maintenance of law and order. Naturally, this evolved into the need for raising and maintaining their own armed forces. Some a'yän even became hereditary rulers of specific territories. As they grew in power, the government began delegating to them them the conduct of most provincial affairs, and even the running of some of the provincial towns. In 1786, the Sultan and his government tried to oust them from power, and to appoint city provosts in their place. This project, however, was soon abolished, and the rule of the a'yän was restored.

Beyond a Local Magistracy

By the beginning of the 18th century, Lewis continues, the local rulers in Anatolia had evolved from a provincial gentry into more than a local magistracy, and they began to assume control over very large areas. Known as derebeys, or valley lords, these officials first appeared as provincial functionaries of the central government, or they arose from the local leading families. Tolerated and at times recognized by the central government, these rulers established autonomous, hereditary principlaities in a relationship of vassalage, rather than in one of subordination to the sultan. In times of war, they served in the Sultan's army, along with other contingents. In fact, the army now consisted, to a large extent, of just such quasi-feudal levies (a levy, in this sense, is similar to our sense of conscription, or obligatory national service). Oftentimes these rulers were given formal titles, such as governors or intendants by the Porte (a term designating the government of the Ottoman Empire). However, they had effectively become independent within their own territories.

Conclusion

By the beginning of the 19th century, Lewis concludes this section, almost all of Anatolia was owned by various derebey families. In fact, only the provinces of Karaman and Anadolu were under the direct government administration of the Ottomans. What a turn-around this must have been! From being powerful rulers with extensive realms, the sultans had become servants to the land-holding gentry, and, as other sections of Bernard Lewis'chapter on "Changes" describe, a pawn in the ever-increasing power-positionings of the Europeans.

Another very interesting section of this chapter tells of a similar transfer of power and influence from the Muslim citizens to the Christian minorites and foreigners. But that is another issue, and one that must await further exploration! For now, I hope you have enjoyed this foray into economics, and will return again for more. By all means, feel free to comment, and add what YOU know about this very interesting topic, and time in history.

Finished 8:49am, 11/07/06; Reviewed and Revised 3:40pm, 11/07/06