The RENAISSANCE!
7. Pick an area, a subject in this time period - a subject that you have been "surfing" and thinking about, that interests or intrigues you, or an area in which you have many impressions or a vivid impression from your surfing and reading. Write your own SUPERB question and then YOUR SUPERB answer it or integrate your impressions into a thoughtful, analytical or creative SUPERB essay.
just one individual?
Give us detail and vision; paint with a broad brush, but sculpt a sturdy enough statue so we can FEEL what the Renaissance was like.
When I read the “Biographical Notes” on the great artist Leonardo (Note Biografiche), I was amazed to find how many other historically significant people he came in contact with. In the 1460’s, Leonardo da Vinci apprenticed with the artist Verrocchio; in the 1470’s he became a member of the corporation of painters in Florence; in the 1480’s he went to Milan with Ludovico Sforza; in the 1490’s he worked on a statue of Francesco Sforza, and studied Euclid with the mathematician Luca Pacioli; in the 1500’s, he was back in Florence with Cesare Borgia; and in the 1510’s, he went to Rome to seek patronage of pope Leo X (originally known as Giovanni de’ Medici), constructed a mechanical lion for the coronation of France’s King Francis I, and then went to the court of Francis I in Amboise. Let’s see now – he was in Florence, Milan, Rome, and France, and crossed paths with Verrocchio, 2 Sforzas, a Borgia, a Medici, a Pope, and a King! That’s a lot of history in any one’s life. Is it just coincidental that this is the life of the great Leonardo? That’s what I hope to find out in this essay-exam. I will look at the people he met, and the places he went, to find out what his life tells us about life during the Renaissance. Unlike most essays on Leonardo, however, I will NOT focus on his artistic and scientific genius! That is a GIVEN. What I prefer to analyze, for the purposes of this exam question is this – Can Leonardo’s life be taken as a prism[1] through which we can understand what life was like during the era we call “the Renaissance”? If so, will following his life’s pathway lead us back into time such that we FEEL what life was like? I believe his life DOES, and following his pathway WILL, if we only let it. In fact, I believe that Leonardo da Vinci can truly be called the quintessential Renaissance man. Like the bread crumbs left by Hansel and Gretel, his life will show us the way.
Leonardo’s name tells us where he came from - a small town in Italy called Vinci. Actually, he was born April 15, 1452 in a farmhouse in Anchiano, 3 km from Vinci. His mother and father were unmarried, and his father was a public notary. Ser Piero later married another woman who was wealthier than the farm woman Catarina. When Leonardo was 5 (in 1457) he moved in with his grandfather’s family in Vinci, where he remained until 1466. At the age of 14, he moved to Florence and began an apprenticeship with the artist Andrea del Verrocchio, “the most gifted and manifoldest artist in Florence.”[2]
Already we have some clues in Leonardo’s story about the history of events around him. Much of the Renaissance life was still rural, yet increasingly people were moving into the towns and the cities. Illegitimate births and extended families were a frequent occurrence, as was the social stratification between poor peasants (such as his birth mother) and wealthy urban dwellers (such as the citizens of Florence). Finally, we have the fact of apprenticeship – a fairly common way for one to learn a trade, and to secure a financial future. All of these circumstances seem to be characteristic of the Renaissance, and presage the changing economic tides that will re-fashion the Middle Ages so much that it will truly feel like a re-birth.
I am struck by the fact that Leonardo’s father was a public accountant. Double-entry accounting made its appearance in the 1300s, but it wasn’t until 1494 that Luca Pacioli codified this system in his book Summa. The section on accounting therein “served as the world’s only accounting textbook until well into the 16th century.”[3] Gutenberg’s printing press helped popularize it. “Perhaps the best proof that Pacioli’s work was considered potentially significant even at the time of publication was the very fact that it was printed on November 10, 1494. Gutenberg had just a quarter-century earlier invented metal type, and it was still an extremely expensive proposition to print a book.[4] Pacioli is the same man that Leonardo will meet in later years and with whom he’ll study Euclid. He also ends up illustrating Pacioli’s 1509 book on Divina Proportione. “Da Vinci’s drawings are probably the first illustrations of skeletonic solids which allowed an easy distinction between front and back. The work also discusses the use of perspective by painters…”[5] Was it the coincidence of having a father in accounting that attracted him to Pacioli? If so, it is of such coincidences that history is made.
Leonardo spent 6 years with Andrea di Michele di Francisco di Cioni, who was known as Andrea del Verrocchio due to his apprenticeship with the master jeweler Verrocchio (which means ‘true eye’ in Italian). Del Verrocchio (1435-1488) “was an influential Florentine sculptor, goldsmith and painter who worked at the court of Lorenzo de Medici. His pupils included Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli, but he also influenced Michelangelo. He worked in the serenely classic style of the Early-High Renaissance.”[6] An interesting description of the apprenticeship practice during this period can be found on the following website: http://www.wfu.edu/%7Ehornms4/fys.htm. “Compared to other artists in the 15th century, Leonardo entered his apprenticeship at a much later age and the art community never saw him as an up and coming child prodigy.”[7]
The next big step for Leonardo was to join the painters’ guild. “Leonardo was enrolled as a painter in the fraternity of St Luke in Florence in 1472, after serving an apprenticeship with Verrocchio.”[8] I won’t focus any further on Leonardo’s artistic career, which is fairly well known (for examples of his artwork, see this site: WebMuseum or perhaps this one: Addio Gallery). Our focus here is to use Leonardo as a prism with which to see the rest of this era. However, the apprenticeship system is certainly a key component of the economic base of the cultural Renaissance in the northern Italian city-states. And, the fraternity of artists was also a well-known component of Leonardo’s artistry. It is clear that genius depends on one’s community, and Leonardo was fortunate to live and work amongst many other like-minded, forward-seeking, entrepreneurial artists.
“…Da Vinci established his own shop in Firenze and was so successful that by the age of twenty-five, he came under the patronage of Lorenzo de'Medici, the powerful ruler of Firenze. He and his patron, however, did not get along: Leonardo had an irritating habit of not finishing his work and Lorenzo the Magnificent had an irritating habit of wanting his commissions finished. So Leonardo left Firenze and came under the patronage of the Sforzas in Milan.”[9] Now, this sentence is FULL of history! Let’s start with Lorenzo de’ Medici.
Soon known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, he took over as head of the Medici family in 1469 from his father Piero. “One of the towering figures of the Italian Renaissance, he [Lorenzo] was an astute politician, firm in purpose, yet pliant and tolerant; a patron of the arts, literature, and learning; and a reputable scholar and poet. Without adopting any official title, he subtly managed to conduct the affairs of the Florentine state. His lavish public entertainments contributed to his popularity, but, in combination with his mediocre success as a businessman, they helped to drain his funds.”[10] It was this latter point that became the undoing of the Medici family. However, not before the Medici’s made a mark on the papacy: “Through his credit with Pope Innocent VIII he obtained a cardinal's hat for his son Giovanni (later Pope Leo X).” Here’s another accolade for Lorenzo: “Lorenzo di Cosimo De' Medici was a man in a long line of family history but nevertheless made a name for himself. He supported great artists such as Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Botticelli. Lorenzo's support was imperative, giving them the freedom to create masterpieces that otherwise would have been disregarded and considered pagan. Lorenzo had a great effect on the Renaissance era and helped it flourish artistically.”[11]
The Medici family was significant for many reasons during the period of their “reign”, from 1360—1743. Their support of the literary and artistic talents is legendary. And, their reputation as the Popes’ bankers is probably also well-known. But, what may not be as well known is the fact that the Medici’s got their start through the collapse of the English banks. “The bank is founded in 1397 and collapses in 1494”, writes Tim Parks in Medici Money.[12] What this statement leaves out is that the Hundred Years War left England bankrupt. When they defaulted on their loans, the two major banks in Italy went bust. It was into this environment that the Medici family became such a dominant influence in Italian politics and arts. Yet even their monetary wealth could not last forever.
We read that “In 1494 King Charles VIII of France invaded the Italian peninsula, throwing the city states into the turmoil of war.”[13] Within12 years, “King Francis I. invited Leonardo da Vinci to spend the last span of life in Amboise at the court of France. In autumn 1516 Leonardo arrived in Amboise.”[14] In between those two dates a lot happens. What is remarkable to me is how astute an artist needed to be, and how versatile in finding employment. Leonardo seems to be a master, for whatever the political winds blew, somehow Leonardo ended up on top.
‘Charles succeeded to the throne upon his father's death on August 30, 1483,” but he was only 15 years old, so his eldest sister, Anne de Beaujeu, and her husband, Pierre de Bourbon headed the regency that ruled. Within 9 years, Charles married Anne de Bretagne, heiress to the duchy of Brittany, and she was only 15 at the time. This was not uncommon! So many royal heads of state and even the cardinals and popes were YOUNG. It’s amazing to us now, but pre-pubescent rulers and child-brides were a frequent, normal event. Perhaps this helps explain some of the wildness of the times!
The Italian Wars, from 1494 to 1559 was really a continental event. All the major powers sought to control the city-states in Italy. Yet it was not all bad. Indeed, “The wars, though ruinous to Italy, had helped to spread the Italian Renaissance in Western Europe.”[15] In particular, France and Spain sought possessions and dominance in the southern states, and Italian sovereignty was restricted for 3 centuries.
“In the 15th Century what is now Italy was divided into many small independent states, which were ruled in various ways. In the South, Naples was ruled by a series of kings. The middle part of Italy was ruled by the Popes of the Roman Catholic Church. Northern Italy was ruled by powerful families who controlled the richest and largest city states such as Milan, Venice and Florence. In a climate of continual power struggles, these city states fought wars against each other and military weaponry played an important role.”[16]
To give us a taste of the convoluted liaisons possible during this epoch, ponder this: “In 1494, Gian Galeazzo died, a virtual prisoner, and Ludovico was formally invested with Milan by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. Partly in order to divert French ambitions from Milan, partly in order to protect himself from the hostility of the king of Naples, Ludovico concluded an offensive alliance with Charles VIII of France, whose invasion (1494) of Italy was the beginning of the Italian Wars. In 1495, however, Ludovico reached an understanding with Charles's enemies and turned against the French, who were expelled from Italy. In 1499, Louis XII of France, who had a hereditary claim to the duchy of Milan (he was a great-grandson of Gian Galeazzo Visconti), invaded Italy and expelled Ludovico from his duchy.”[17] No wonder Leonardo went from one patron to another – the leaders were bouncing around just as often as he was! Nevertheless, “Leonardo spent about twenty years (1480s - 1499) in the service of Lodovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan (who frequently neglected to pay Leonardo). His output during this period included two of his best known paintings: The Madonna of the Rocks (1483-85) and the mural The Last Supper (1495-98).”[18] “In 1489 Leonardo received the Sforza commission, to cast the largest equestrian statue ever, in honour of Ludovico’s father.”[19] However, when King Charles VIII invaded Italy, “the 66 tons of bronze which had been set aside to cast the statue was sent instead to Ferrara to make cannons for the war against France.”[20] However, “when Duke Sforza’s family fled Milan in 1499, Leonardo left to search for a new patron.”[21] He returned to Florence, and “it was here that he painted one of the most famous portraits of all time, The Mona Lisa, more correctly known as La Gioconda (1503-06).[22]
Francesco Sforza was the father of Ludovico, and the duke of Milan from 1450-66. Like Leonardo, he was also an illegitimate son. “He succeeded his father as leader of his band of mercenaries, and by his valor and sagacity he became one of the most powerful condottieri of his time.”[23] Francesco Sforza had married the illegitimate daughter of the duke of Milan, and when he died, a republic was set up. “Francesco, who commanded the Milanese troops, made himself master of the republic and was proclaimed duke in 1450 with the support of the Medici of Florence. He consolidated the power of Milan and in 1464 seized Genoa. An able prince, he patronized arts and letters and beautified Milan.”[24] Sforza, it is said, was one of the “models” upon which Machiavelli based his treatise on political survival called “The Prince”.
“Machiavelli has been called the brilliant creator of modern political science by some, and a cynical beast by others; he is considered the originator of the idea of a political pragmatism that says "the end justifies the means." Either way, his 1513 book The Prince is a landmark work in the history of political power.”[25] For my money, Machiavelli was a genius, in the same way that Leonardo was a genius. It wasn’t that he was so much smarter than others, and such an originator of new thoughts. Rather, he pulled together what was already available to be known, and he expressed it in a way that was clean, clear, and simple. Like Leonardo, he was above all else an observant man. He noted what succeeds in political life, and what fails. It is said that Machiavelli wrote The Prince with the intent of appealing to the Medici rulers, but that this never happened. His dedication to "Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici" in The Prince is to the grandson” of Lorenzo the Magnifico.[26] More than that, though, Machiavelli wrote with the intent of summarizing the lessons he had learned, either personally or through observing others. “As defense secretary he substituted (1506) a citizens' militia for the mercenary system then prevailing in Italy. This reform sprang from his conviction, set forth in his major works that the employment of mercenaries had largely contributed to the political weakness of Italy.”[27] Machiavelli was also employed in diplomatically, and “became acquainted with power politics through his important diplomatic missions. He met Cesare Borgia twice and was sent by way of Florence to Louis XII of France (1504, 1510), to Pope Julius II (1506), and to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1507).”[28]
The Borgia family was “influential from the 14th to the 16th century, that included the son and daughter of pope Alexander VI. Cesare (1478?-1507), a religious, military, and political leader, was the model for Machiavelli’s The Prince. Lucrezia (1489-1519), the Duchess of Ferrara, was a patron of learning and the arts.”[29] Cesare was the younger son of Pope Alexander VI, who “used his position to aggrandize his son and establish a papal empire in N and central Italy.”[30] Like so many rulers of the time, Cesare suffered at the hands of fate just as much as others suffered by his hands. “By killing his enemies, packing the college of cardinals, pushing his conquests as fast as possible, and buying the loyalty of the Roman gentry, he had hoped to make his position independent of the papacy, or at least to insure that the election of any future pope would be to his liking. But before his schemes could be realized, Cesare was struck in 1503 by the same poison (or illness) that suddenly killed his father. Cesare recovered; however, his political power had suffered a fatal blow.”[31] He was later arrested by first Pope Julius (who demanded he turn over his lands to him) and then by the Spanish governor, who was in cahoots with Ferdinand and Isabella (now in control of Naples), was jailed and then escaped, and finally ended his days fighting for the kingdom of Navarre. “His former possessions had passed under direct papal rule; thus, Cesare must be regarded as instrumental in the consolidation of the Papal States, even if that was not his purpose. Cesare has long been considered the model of the Renaissance prince, the prototype of Niccolò Machiavelli's Prince—intelligent, cruel, treacherous, and ruthlessly opportunistic.”[32]
In 1502 Leonardo “was appointed a Military Engineer to Cesare Borgia on his campaign to central Italy. While in this post he was able to inspect fortresses. He also saw the Romagna campaign.” It’s amazing, once again, how consistently versatile Leonardo was, as well as prolific. It’s said he left many works undone, yet the marvel is that he accomplished so much, and of such variety. Certainly his contacts with the people of power during this time stimulated his artist and scientific talents. Yet just as easily one may say that Leonardo had an effect on those around him. With ideas flowing freely, it’s easy to understand how the cross-fertilization of one project promoted tangential interests. It is not for naught that the image of the “Renaissance Man” is the human being drawn by Leonardo that has all limbs and all faculties engaged in the world around him.
In 1513 “Leonardo moved to Rome at the invitation of the newly elected Pope Giuliano dei Medici.”[33] Giuliano was “duke of Nemours (1515–16); younger son of Lorenzo de' Medici (Lorenzo il Magnifico) and brother of Pope Leo X. He entered Florence in 1512 when the Holy League restored his family to rule the city.” “He married Philiberta (1498–1524), a princess of the House of Savoy, in February 1515, at the court of France. Francis I of France invested them jointly with the Nemours title (which had recently reverted once again to the French crown) on the occasion, and was apparently grooming him for the throne of Naples (in which the French maintained a historical interest) when Giuliano died prematurely. He was followed at Florence by his nephew Lorenzo.” “Giuliano finally succeeded to the papal throne as Julius II on 28 November 1503 (not without resorting to bribery, it is said). As pope, Julius continued to extend papal authority and the temporal power of the church, with particular designs on Venice and France. He became a great patron of the arts, including commissioning Raphael, Donato Bramante (who began the rebuilding of St. Peter's) and Michelangelo, who he hired (or bullied, some say) to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in 1508.”[34]
No sooner did Leonardo go to Rome, than the Pope died unexpectedly. He was replaced by Pope Leo X who “was not a competent ruler; he was a good, pious man, a dilettante of letters and art, but not greatly interested in the advancement of the church. His chief fame rests on his patronage of Raphael, on the continuation of St. Peter's by Bramante, and on his literary circle, including Cardinals Bembo and Bibbiena and many others.”[35] Leo X, who ruled from 1513-1521, is also remembered for having “concluded a concordat with France (1516) and excommunicated Martin Luther (1521).”[36] Luther, of course, is the man who complained forcefully (with his 95 Theses pounded into the wall of the church in Wittenberg The fury he felt was against the selling of indulgences by the clergy, and Leo X, with his plans to build St. Peter’s Basilica. Another claim-to-fame for Leo is that he “granted Henry VIII of England the title Defender of the Faith (Defensor Fidei).”[37]
“As king, Henry inherited from his father a budget surplus and a precedent for autocratic rule. In 1511, Henry joined Pope Julius II, King Ferdinand II of Aragón, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, and the Venetians in their Holy League against France.”[38] How ironic, then, that it should be Henry that breaks with the Catholic Church – all for the right to marry 6 women in the attempt to have a son and male heir.
It appears that we could go on and on. Leonardo da Vinci’s life is both typical and a-typical of his time and place. The social, cultural, economic, and political variables reflected in this analysis show that Leonardo is very representative of his time. He lived the life of a typical resident of Florence or Milan or Rome or France. He came in contact with many of the makers of history, and he was one himself. Any designation of “quintessential” is going to be a subjective opinion. But, for where I sit, I look back on Leonardo’s life and can just marvel – at all he did; where he went; what he saw; who he met. It’s almost as if his GENIUS is a gift above and beyond his ordinary life circumstances. Yet perhaps they amount to the fact that he DID “fit in” – he represented his era as well as transformed it. Without the ability to talk to the high-and-mighty, he may not have received the commissions that provided the art work we see when we travel the world. And without his origins amongst the low-and-ordinary, he might not have related what was all around so that we might see. To go through a re-birth, after all, one must first fully live, and then be willing to live anew. Leonardo demonstrates the ability to do that, and then some. So I will end this essay, like much of Leonardo’s work, in the state of undone/just begun. I have a quest before me now, and the answers will only draw me deeper within the world of the Renaissance. But life moves on around me. My patron calls with a new commission – I must now open up to “Enlightenment.” ONWARD!
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[1] “A prism of glass (or a similar transparent material) can be used to bend different wavelengths of light by different amounts through refraction. This bending separates a beam of white light into a spectrum of colored light.” See http://www.answers.com/topic/prism.
[2] “Leonardo da Vinci”, by Martin Kausal, accessed 2/23/06 from http://www.kausal.com/leonardo/index.html, 1997. I will use this online account of Leonardo’s life to help me construct a timeline of people and events that will help us “flesh out” this portrait of da Vinci and his times.
[3] “Luca Pacioli: The Father of Accounting” by L. Murphy Smith, March 26, 2002, accessed online 2/23/06 from http://acct.tamu.edu/smith/ethics/pacioli.htm.
[4] Ibid.
[5] “Luca Pacioli”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/luca-pacioli, accessed 2/23/06.
[6] “Andrea del Verrocchio”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/andrea-del-verrocchio, accessed 2/23/06.
[7] “Apprenticeships during the Renaissance”, by Maggie Horne, from http://www.wfu.edu/%7Ehornms4/fys.htm, accessed 2/24/06.
[8] “Paintings until 1480 by Leonardo da Vinci”, from http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/01/index.html, accessed 2/24/06.
[9] “Leonardo da Vinci”, from http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/REN/DAVINCI.HTM, accessed 2/07/06.
[10] “Lorenzo de’ Medici”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/lorenzo-de-medici,, accessed 2/24/06.
[11] “Lorenzo di Cosimo de' Medici”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/lorenzo-di-cosimo-de-medici,, accessed 2/24/06.
[12] Medici Money, a book by Tim Parks, from http://www.timparks.com/19.html, accessed 2/24/06.
[13]“Leonardo’s Timeline”, from http://www.open2.net/leonardo/timeline_and_quiz.htm#, accessed 2/24/06
[14] “Invitation to France”, from http://www.kausal.com/leonardo/france.html, accessed 2/23/06.
[15] “Italian Wars”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/italian-wars, accessed 2/24/06.
[16] “Leonardo’s Timeline”, from http://www.open2.net/leonardo/timeline_and_quiz.htm#, accessed 2/24/06
[17] “Ludovico Sforza”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/ludovico-sforza, accessed 2/24/06.
[18] “About Leonardo da Vinci”, by Shelley Esaak from http://arthistory.about.com/cs/namesdd/a/leonardo.htm,, accessed 2/2/06.
[19] “Leonardo’s Timeline”, from http://www.open2.net/leonardo/timeline_and_quiz.htm#, accessed 2/24/06
[20] Ibid.
[21] “Glossary: Patron” from http://www.mos.org/sln/Leonardo/Glossary.html,accessed 2/14/06.
[22] “About Leonardo da Vinci”, by Shelley Esaak from http://arthistory.about.com/cs/namesdd/a/leonardo.htm,, accessed 2/2/06.
[23] “Francesco I Sforza”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/francesco-sforza, accessed 2/19/06.
[24] Ibid.
[25] “Niccolo Machiavelli” from http://www.answers.com/topic/niccolo-machiavelli accessed 2/24/06.
[26] “Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici” from http://www.answers.com/topic/lorenzo-di-piero-de-medici accessed 2/24/06.
[27] “Niccolo Machiavelli” from http://www.answers.com/topic/niccolo-machiavelli accessed 2/24/06..
[28] Ibid.
[29] “Borgia” from http://www.answers.com/topic/borgia accessed 2/19/06.
[30] “Cesare Borgia” from http://www.answers.com/topic/cesare-borgia accessed 2/19/06.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Ibid.
[33] “Leonardo’s Timeline”, from http://www.open2.net/leonardo/tim.eline_and_quiz.htm#, accessed 2/24/06
[34] “Pope Julius II” from http://www.answers.com/topic/pope-julius-ii accessed 2/24/06.
[35] “Pope Leo X”, from http://www.answers.com/topic/pope-leo-x, accessed 2/24/06.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Ibid.
[38] “Henry VIII” from http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-viii, accessed 2/24/06.
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